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International Women\'s Day rally in Dhaka, Bangladesh, organized by the National Women Workers Trade Union Centre on March 8, 2005
Feminism comprises a number of social, cultural and political movements, theories and moral philosophies concerned with gender inequalities and equal rights for women.
According to some, the history of feminism consists of three waves. Humm, Maggie. 1995. The Dictionary of Feminist Theory. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, p. 251 Walker, Rebecca, \'Becoming the Third Wave\' in Ms. (January/February, 1992) pp. 39-41 The first wave was in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second was in the 1960s and 1970s and the third extends from the 1990s to the present. Feminist Theory developed from the feminist movement. It takes a number of forms in a variety of disciplines such as feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism.
Feminism has altered aspects of Western society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist political activists have been concerned with issues such as a woman\'s right of contract and property, a woman\'s right to bodily integrity and autonomy (especially on matters such as reproductive rights, including the right to abortion, access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection from domestic violence; against sexual harassment and rape;Echols, Alice, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975’’ (University of Minnesota Press,1989) ISBN 978 0816617876Cornell, Drucilia, At the Heart of Freedom: Feminism, Sex, and Equality (Princeton UP,1998) p. X, ISBN 978069102896-5 for workplace rights, including maternity leave and equal pay; and against other forms of discrimination.Feminist Theory and the Body: A Reader ed. by Janet Price and Margrit Shildrick (Edinburgh University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780748610891
Throughout much of its history, most of the leaders of feminist social and political movements, as well as many feminist theorists, have been predominantly middle-class white women from western Europe and North America. However, at least since Sojourner Truth\'s 1851 speech to US Feminists, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms. This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the Civil Rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in former European colonies and the Third World have proposed alternative "post-colonial" and "Third World" feminisms as well. Some Postcolonial feminists, such as Chandra Talpade Mohanty, are critical of Western feminism for being ethnocentric. Black feminists, such as Angela Davis and Alice Walker, share this view.
Since the 1980s, standpoint feminists have argued that the feminist movement should address global issues (such as rape, incest, and prostitution) and culturally specific issues (such as female genital mutilation in some parts of Africa and the Middle East and glass ceiling practices that impede women\'s advancement in developed economies) in order to understand how gender inequality interacts with racism, homophobia, classism and colonization in a "matrix of domination."Hill Collins, P. (2000): Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (New York: Routledge) Harding, Sandra, The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies (Routledge, 2003), ISBN 9780415945011 Other feminists have argued that gendered and sexed identities, such as "man" and "woman", are social constructs meaning that some gender roles are socially conditioned rather than innate.Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, \'Doing Gender\' in Gender and Society, Vol. 1, No. 2(June, 1987) pp. 125-151
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Feminists have divided the movement\'s history into three "waves". The first wave refers to that of the nineteenth through early twentieth centuries, which dealt mainly with the Suffrage movement. The second wave (1960s-1980s) attempted to right legal and cultural inequalities. The third wave (1990s-present) is seen as both a continuation and a response to the perceived failures of the second wave.Krolokke, Charlotte and Anne Scott Sorensen, \'From Suffragettes to Grrls\' in Gender Communication Theories and Analyses:From Silence to Performance (Sage, 2005)
First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States. Originally it focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for women and the opposition to chattel marriage and ownership of married women (and their children) by their husbands. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women\'s suffrage. Yet, feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger were still active in campaigning for women\'s sexual, reproductive, and economic rights at this time. Freedman, Estelle B., No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women (London: Ballantine Books, 2003)
In Britain the Suffragettes campaigned for the women\'s vote. In 1918 the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over eighteen. Phillips, Melanie, The Ascent of Woman: A History of the Suffragette Movement (Abacus, 2004), ISBN 9780349116600 In the United States leaders of this movement included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women\'s right to vote. Other important leaders include Lucy Stone, Olympia Brown, and Helen Pitts. American first-wave feminism involved a wide range of women, some belonging to conservative Christian groups (such as Frances Willard and the Woman\'s Christian Temperance Union), others resembling the diversity and radicalism of much of second-wave feminism (such as Matilda Joslyn Gage and the National Woman Suffrage Association). In the United States first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote.The term first wave, was coined retrospectively after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities. Freedman, Estelle B., No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women (London: Ballantine Books, 2003) DuBois, Ellen Carol, Harriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman Suffrage (Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 9780300065620 Flexner, Eleanor, Century of Struggle: The Woman\'s Rights Movement in the United States (The Belknap Press, 1996), ISBN 9780674106539 Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill, ed., One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement (NewSage Press, 1995) ISBN 9780939165260 Stevens, Doris, Jailed for Freedom: American Women Win the Vote (NewSage Press, 1995), ISBN 9780939165252
Original paperback cover from Betty Friedan\'s The Feminine Mystique (1963)
Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s and lasting through the late 1980s. The scholar, Imelda Whelehan, suggests that the second wave was a continuation of the earlier phase of feminism involving the suffragettes in the UK and USA. Whelehan, Imelda, Modern Feminist Thought (Edinburgh UP, 1995), ISBN 9780748606214 Second-wave feminism has existed continuously since that time and coexists with what is termed third-wave feminism. Second-wave feminists saw cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized as well as reflective of a sexist structure of power. With her essay "The Personal is Political", Carol Hanisch coined a slogan that became synonymous with the second wave. If first-wave feminism focused on rights such as suffrage, second-wave feminism was largely concerned with other issues of equality, such as the end to discrimination.
The phrase "Women’s Liberation" was first used in the United States in 1964Sarachild, Kathie. Consciousness-Raising: A Radical Weapon, in Sarachild, K, Hanisch, C, Levine, F, Leon, B, Price, C (eds.) Feminist Revolution. Random House N.Y. 1978 pp. 144-150. and first appeared in print in 1966. Mitchell, Juliet, \'Women: The longest revolution\' in New Left Review, 1966, Nov-Dec, pp. 11-37 By 1968, although the term Women’s Liberation Front appeared in the magazine Ramparts, it was starting to refer to the whole women’s movement.Hinckle, Warren and Marianne Hinckle. Women Power. Ramparts 1968 February 22-31 Bra-burning also became associated with the movement.Freeman, Jo. The politics of women\'s liberation. David McKay N.Y. 1975 One of the most vocal critics of the women\'s liberation movement has been the African American feminist and intellectual bell hooks, who argues that the movement\'s glossing over of race and class was part of its failure to address "the issues that divided women". She has highlighted the lack of minority voices in the women\'s movement.hooks, bell, Feminist theory from margin to center (South End Press, 1984)
Betty Friedan\'s The Feminine Mystique (1963) criticized the idea that women could only find fulfillment through childrearing and homemaking. According to Friedan\'s obituary in the The New York Times, The Feminine Mystique “ignited the contemporary women\'s movement in 1963 and as a result permanently transformed the social fabric of the United States and countries around the world” and “is widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.” Fox, Margalit, \'Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in \'Feminine Mystique,\' Dies at 85\' in The New York Times February 5 2006. In the book Friedan hypothesizes that women are victims of a false belief system that requires them to find identity and meaning in their lives through their husbands and children. Such a system causes women to completely lose their identity in that of their family. Friedan specifically locates this system among post-World War II middle-class suburban communities. At the same time, America\'s post-war economic boom had led to the development of new technologies that were supposed to make household work less difficult, but that often had the result of making women\'s work less meaningful and valuable. Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique (W.W. Norton and Company Inc., 1963), ISBN 9780393084361
Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave\'s essentialist definitions of femininity, which (according to them) over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women. A post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality is central to much of the third wave\'s ideology. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave\'s paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for females. Henry, Astrid, Not My Mother\'s Sister: Generational Conflict and Third-Wave Feminism (Indiana University Press, 2003), ISBN 9780253217134 Gillis, Stacy, Gillian Howie & Rebecca Munford (eds), Third Wave Feminism: A Critical Exploration (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), ISBN 9780230521742 Faludi, Susan, Backlash: The Undeclared War Against Women (Vintage, 1993), ISBN 9780099222712 The third wave has its origins in the mid-1980s. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherrie Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other black feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Heywood, Leslie; Jennifer Drake eds., Third Wave Agenda: Being Feminist, Doing Feminism (University of Minnesota Press, 1997), ISBN 9780816630054
Third-wave feminism also consists of debates between difference feminists, such as the psychologist Carol Gilligan, who believe that there are important differences between the sexes, and those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning.Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982
Post-feminism describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave\'s ideas. Wright, Elizabeth, Lacan and Postfeminism (Icon Books, 2000), ISBN 9781840461829 Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today\'s society.Modleski, Tania. Feminism without Women: Culture and Criticism in a “Postfeminist” Age. New York: Routledge, 1991, 3. Amelia Jones has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations. Jones, Amelia. “Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art,” New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action, Eds. Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16-41, 20.
One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotin\'s 1982 article "Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation," published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.Rosen, Ruth. The World Split Open: How the Modern Women\'s Movement Changed America. New York: Viking, 2000, 275, 337.
Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people". Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist. Pollitt, Katha, Reasonable Creatures: Essays on Women and Feminism (Vintage, 1995) ISBN 9780679762782 Strossen, Nadine, Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women\'s Rights (Prentice Hall & IBD, 1995), ISBN 9780684197494
In her 1994 book Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women, Christina Hoff Sommers considers much of modern academic feminist theory and the feminist movement to be gynocentric and misandrist. She labels this "Gender feminism" and proposes "Equity feminism"—an ideology that aims for full civil and legal equality. She argues that while the feminists she designates as gender feminists advocate preferential treatment and portray women as victims, equity feminism provides a viable alternative form of feminism. Hoff Sommers, Christina, Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women (Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1995) These descriptions and her other work have caused Hoff Sommers to be described as an antifeminist by other feminists. Flood, Michael (7 July 2004). "Backlash: Angry men\'s movements", in Stacey Elin Rossi, ed.: The Battle and Backlash Rage On. N.p.: XLibris, 273. ISBN 1-4134-5934-XUncovering the Right -- Female Anti-Feminism for Fame and Profit. Retrieved on 2007-12-21.
Susan Faludi in her book Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women, argues that a backlash against second wave feminism in the 1980s has successfully re-defined feminism through its terms. She argues that it constructed the women\'s liberation movement as the source of many of the problems alleged to be plaguing women in the late 1980s. She also argues that many of these problems are illusory, constructed by the media without reliable evidence. According to her, this type of backlash is an historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights. Faludi, Susan, Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women (Three Rivers Press, 2006)
French feminism usually refers to a branch of feminist thinking from a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the 1990s. French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is at once more philosophical and more literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical, rather than pragmatic. It is less concerned with immediate political doctrine, or "materialism", and generally focuses on theories of "the body". Moi, Toril, French Feminist Thought: A Reader (Blackwell Publishers, 1987)m ISBN 9780631149736
The French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir wrote novels; monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues; essays, biographies, and an autobiography. She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, and for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women\'s oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. It sets out a feminist existentialism which prescribes a moral revolution. As an existentialist, de Beauvoir accepts Jean-Paul Sartre\'s precept that existence precedes essence; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one". Her analysis focuses on the concept of The Other; that is, is the social construction of Woman as the quintessential Other that Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women\'s oppression. de Beauvoir, Simone The Second Sex (Vintage Books, 1973) She argues that women have historically been considered deviant and abnormal. She submits that even Mary Wollstonecraft considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. Beauvoir says that this attitude has limited women\'s success by maintaining the perception that they are a deviation from the normal—outsiders attempting to emulate "normality". For feminism to move forward, this assumption must be set aside.
French feminists approach feminism with a the concept of écriture féminine (which translates as female, or feminine, writing). Helene Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise. The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, Julia Kristeva, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world". Moi, Toril, ed., The Kristeva Reader (Basil Blackwell, 1986) Bracha L. Ettinger, an artist, theorist and psychoanalyst, contends that the specificity of the female body allows it to articulate a "matrixial trans-subjectivity" which has specific aesthetic and ethical implications.Special Issue on Bracha L. Ettinger, Theory, Culture and Society, Vol.21 n.1, 2004. ISSN 0263-2764. Ettinger, Bracha L., The Matrixial Borderspace. (Articles from 1994-1999, forwarded by Judith Butler with introductions by Griselda Pollock and Brian Massumi) University of Minnesota Press, 2006. ISBN 0-8166-3587-0.
Feminist theory is an extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women\'s studies, literary criticism,Vanda Zajko & Miriam Leonard (eds.), Laughing with Medusa. Oxford University Press, 2006.Mica Howe & Sarah A. Aguiar (eds.), He Said, She Says. Fairleigh Dickinson University press & London: Associated University Press, 2001. art history,Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007. psychoanalysisBracha Ettinger, The Matrixial Borderspace (Essays from 1994-1999), University of Minnesota Press, 2006. and philosophy.Brabeck and Brown, 1997Penny Florence & Nicola Foster (eds.), Differential Aesthetics. London: Ashgate, 2000. Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women\'s rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy. Gilligan, Carol, \'In a Different Voice: Women\'s Conceptions of Self and Morality\' in Harvard Educational Review (1977) Chodorow, Nancy J., Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (Yale University Press: 1989, 1991)
The American literary critic and feminist Elaine Showalter describes the phased development of feminist theory. The first she calls "feminist critique", in which the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls "gynocriticism", in which the "woman is producer of textual meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career [and] literary history". The last phase she calls "gender theory", in which the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system" are explored". Showalter, Elaine. \'Toward a Feminist Poetics: Women’s Writing and Writing About Women\' in The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature and Theory (Random House, 1988), ISBN 9780394726472 This model has been criticized by Toril Moi who sees it as an essentialist and deterministic model for female subjectivity and for failing to account for the situation of women outside the West.Moi, Toril, Sexual/Textual Politics (Routledge, 2002), ISBN 9780415280129
Several subtypes of feminist ideology have developed over the years; some of the major subtypes are listed below.
Betty Friedan in 1960
Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism uses the personal interactions between men and women as the place from which to transform society. According to liberal feminists, all women are capable of asserting their ability to achieve equality, therefore it is possible for change to happen without altering the structure of society. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproductive and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal pay for equal work", affordable childcare, affordable health care, and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women.hooks, bell. "Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center" Cambridge, MA: South End Press 1984
Radical feminism considers the capitalist hierarchy, which it describes as sexist, as the defining feature of women’s oppression. Radical feminists believe that women can free themselves only when they have done away with what they consider an inherently oppressive and dominating system. Radical feminists feel that there is a male-based authority and power structure and that it is responsible for oppression and inequality, and that as long as the system and its values are in place, society will not be able to be reformed in any significant way. Radical feminists see capitalism as one of the most important barriers to ending oppression. Most radical feminists see no alternatives other than the total uprooting and reconstruction of society in order to achieve their goals.Echols, Alice. "Daring to be Bad" University of Minnesota Press 1990
Separatist feminism is one form of radical feminism. It does not support heterosexual relationships because its proponents argue that the sexual disparities between men and women are unresolvable. Separatist feminists generally do not feel that men can make positive contributions to the feminist movement and that even well-intentioned men replicate patriarchal dynamics.Sarah Hoagland, "Lesbian Ethics." Author Marilyn Frye describes separatist feminism as "separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege — this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, by women".Marilyn Frye, "Some Reflections on Separatism and Power." In Feminist Social Thought: A Reader, Diana Tietjens Meyers (ed.) (1997) New York: Routledge, pp. 406-414.
Susie Bright in 2007
Both the sex-positive and sex-negative forms of present-day feminism can trace their roots to early radical feminism. Some feminists joined the sex-positive feminist movement in response to anti-pornography feminists, such as Catharine MacKinnon, Andrea Dworkin, Robin Morgan and Dorchen Leidholdt, who argued that heterosexual pornography was a central cause of women\'s oppression.(McElroy, 1995). Sex-positive feminism, sometimes known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a movement that was formed in order to address issues of women\'s sexual pleasure, sex work, and inclusive gender identities. The initial period of intense debate and acrimony between sex-positive and anti-pornography feminists during the early 1980s is often referred to as the Feminist Sex Wars. Other, less academic, sex-positive feminists became involved not in opposition to other feminists, but in direct response to what they saw as patriarchal control of sexuality, such as the organization Feminists for Free Expression.
Ellen Willis\'s 1981 essay, "Lust Horizons: Is the Women\'s Movement Pro-Sex?" is the origin of the term, pro-sex feminism. In it, she argues against feminists making alliances with the political right in opposition to pornography and prostitution, as occurred, for example, during the Meese Commission hearings in the United States. Willis argues for a feminism that embraces sexual freedom, including men\'s sexual freedom, rather than one that condemns pornography, consensual BDSM, and in some cases sexual intercourse and fellatio.Ellen Willis, Lust Horizons: The \'Voice\' and the women\'s movement, Village Voice 50th Anniversary Issue, 2007. This is not the original "Lust Horizons" essay, but a retrospective essay mentioning that essay as the origin of the term. Accessed online 7 July 2007. A lightly revised version of the original "Lust Horizons" essay can be found in No More Nice Girls, p. 3–14.
Another offshoot of radical feminism is anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism or anarcho-feminism), an ideology which combines feminist and anarchist beliefs. Anarcha-feminists view patriarchy as a manifestation of hierarchy, believing that the fight against patriarchy is an essential part of the class struggle and the anarchist struggle against the state. Farrow, Lynne, Quiet Rumours: An Anarcha-feminist Reader (AK Press, 2003), ISBN 9781902593401 Anarcha-feminists such as Susan Brown see the anarchist struggle as a necessary component of the feminist struggle. In Brown\'s words, "anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".Brown, Susan. "Beyond Feminism: Anarchism and Human Freedom" \'Anarchist Papers 3\' Black Rose Books (1990) p. 208 Recently, Wendy McElroy has defined a position (she describes it as "ifeminism" or "individualist feminism") that combines feminism with anarcho-capitalism or libertarianism, arguing that a pro-capitalist, anti-state position is compatible with an emphasis on equal rights and empowerment for women.Wendy McElroy, XXX: A Woman\'s Right to Pornography. Individualist anarchist-feminism has grown from the US-based individualist anarchism movement."Feminism: Anarchist" by Judy Greenway. 2000. Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women\'s Issues and Knowledge. Kramara, Cheris & Spender, Dale eds. Routledge. p. 712
Angela Davis speaking at the University of Alberta on 28 March 2006
Black feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together.Defining Black Feminist Thought, retrieved on May 31 2007. Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression but ignore race can discriminate against many people, including women, through racial bias. Black feminists argue that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression.A Black Feminist Statement - 1974, retrieved on May 31 2007. One of the theories that evolved out of this movement was Alice Walker\'s Womanism. It emerged after the early feminist movements that were led specifically by white women who advocated social changes such as woman’s suffrage. These movements were largely white middle-class movements and ignored oppression based on racism and classism. Alice Walker and other Womanists pointed out that black women experienced a different and more intense kind of oppression from that of white women. Walker, Alice, In Search of Our Mothers\' Gardens (Phoenix, 2005), ISBN 9780753819609
Angela Davis was one of the first people who articulated an argument centered around the intersection of race, gender, and class in her book, Women, Race, and Class.List of Books written by Black Feminists, retrieved on May 31 2007. Kimberle Crenshaw, a prominent feminist law theorist, gave the idea a name while discussing identity politics in her essay, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence Against Women of Color".
Clara Zetkin and Rosa Luxemburg, 1910
Socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist feminists see women as being held down as a result of their unequal standing in both the workplace and the domestic sphere.Monstrous Domesticity by Faith Wilding, retrieved on May 31 2007. Prostitution, domestic work, childcare, and marriage are all seen as ways in which women are exploited by a patriarchal system which devalues women and the substantial work that they do. Socialist feminists focus their energies on broad change that affects society as a whole, and not just on an individual basis. They see the need to work alongside not just men, but all other groups, as they see the oppression of women as a part of a larger pattern that affects everyone involved in the capitalist system.Ehrenreich, Barbara. "What is Socialist Feminism" WIN Magazine, 1976
Marx felt that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well. According to socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression as a sub-class of class oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class phenomena. Marx, Karl, Capital translated by B. Fowkes (Penguin Classics, 1990), ISBN 9780140445688 Some contributors to socialist feminism have criticized these traditional Marxist ideas for being largely silent on gender oppression except to subsume it underneath broader class oppression. \'Feminism and Class Politics: A Round-Table Discussion\' Clara Connolly, Lynne Segal, Michele Barrett, Beatrix Campbell, Anne Phillips, Angela Weir, Elizabeth Wilson in Feminist Review, No. 23, Socialist-Feminism: Out of the Blue (Summer, 1986), pp. 13-30 Other socialist feminists, notably two long-lived American organizations Radical Women and the Freedom Socialist Party, point to the classic Marxist writings of Frederick Engels Engels, Fredrich, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, translated by A. West, (Lawrence & Wishart Ltd, 1972), ISBN 9780853152606 and August Bebel Bebel, August, Woman under Socialism (University Press of the Pacific, 2004), ISBN 9781410215642 as a powerful explanation of the link between gender oppression and class exploitation.
In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the demonization of men and supported a proletarian revolution that would overcome as many male-female inequalities as possible. Stokes, John, Eleanor Marx (1855-1898): Life, Work, Contacts, and: Socialist Women: Britain, 1880s to 1920s (Ashgate, 2000), ISBN 9780754601135
For more details on this topic, see Postmodern feminism.
Post-structural feminism, also referred to as French feminism, uses the insights of various epistemological movements, including psychoanalysis, linguistics, political theory (Marxist and post-Marxist theory), race theory, literary theory, and other intellectual currents for feminist concerns.Johnson, Barbara. The Feminist Difference: Literature, Psychoanalysis, Race and Gender, Harvard University Press, 2000 Many post-structural feminists maintain that difference is one of the most powerful tools that females possess in their struggle with patriarchal domination, and that to equate the feminist movement only with equality is to deny women a plethora of options because equality is still defined from the masculine or patriarchal perspective.Irigaray, Luce. "When Our Lips Speak Together" in Feminist Theory and the Body: A Reader ed. by Janet Price & Margrit Shildrick, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999
Judith Butler at a lecture at the University of Hamburg.
Postmodern feminism is an approach to feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory. The largest departure from other branches of feminism, is the argument that gender is constructed through language. Butler, Judith, "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity" (Routledge, 1999), p.7, ISBN 9780415924993 The most notable proponent of this argument is Judith Butler. In her 1990 book, Gender Trouble, she draws on and criticizes the work of Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault and Jacques Lacan. Butler criticizes the distinction drawn by previous feminisms between biological sex and socially constructed gender. She says that this does not allow for a sufficient criticism of essentialism. For Butler "woman" is a debatable category, complicated by class, ethnicity, sexuality, and other facets of identity. She suggests that gender is performative. This argument leads to the conclusion that there is no single cause for women\'s subordination and no single approach towards dealing with the issue. Butler, Judith, "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity" (Routledge, 1999), ISBN 9780415924993
Donna Haraway, author of A Cyborg Manifesto, with her dog Cayenne
In A Cyborg Manifesto Donna Haraway criticizes traditional notions of feminism, particularly its emphasis on identity, rather than affinity. She uses the metaphor of a cyborg in order to construct a postmodern feminism that moves beyond dualisms and the limitations of traditional gender, feminism, and politics. Harraway, Donna, \'Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century\' in Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (Routledge, 1991), pp.149-181 [1] Haraway\'s cyborg is an attempt to break away from Oedipal narratives and Christian origin-myths like Genesis. She writes: "The cyborg does not dream of community on the model of the organic family, this time without the oedipal project. The cyborg would not recognize the Garden of Eden; it is not made of mud and cannot dream of returning to dust."
A major branch in postmodern feminist thought has emerged from the contemporary psychoanalytic French feminism. Other postmodern feminist works highlight stereotypical gender roles, only to portray them as parodies of the original beliefs. The history of feminism is not important in these writings—only what is going to be done about it. The history is dismissed and used to depict how ridiculous past beliefs were. Modern feminist theory has been extensively criticized as being predominantly, though not exclusively, associated with Western middle class academia. Mainstream feminism has been criticized as being too narrowly focused and inattentive to related issues of race and class.Mary Joe Frug, "A Postmodern Feminist Legal Manifesto (An Unfinished Draft)," Harvard Law Review, Vol. 105, No. 5. (Mar., 1992), pp. 1045-1075
For more details on this topic, see Postcolonial feminism.
Postcolonial feminists argue that oppression relating to the colonial experience, particularly racial, class, and ethnic oppression, has marginalized women in postcolonial societies. They challenge the assumption that gender oppression is the primary force of patriarchy. Postcolonial feminists object to portrayals of women of non-Western societies as passive and voiceless victims and the portrayal of Western women as modern, educated and empowered.Mills, S (1998): "Postcolonial Feminist Theory" page 106 in S. Jackson and J. Jones eds., Contemporary Feminist Theories (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press) pp.98-112
Postcolonial feminism emerged from the gendered history of colonialism: colonial powers often imposed Western norms on colonized regions. In the 1940s and 1950s, after the formation of the United Nations, former colonies were monitored by the West for what was considered "social progress". The status of women in the developing world has been monitored by organizations such as the United Nations and as a result traditional practices and roles taken up by women—sometimes seen as distasteful by Western standards—could be considered a form of rebellion against colonial oppression. Mohanty, Chandra Talpade, \'Under Western Eyes\' in Feminist Review, No. 30 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 61-88 Postcolonial feminists today struggle to fight gender oppression within their own cultural models of society rather than through those imposed by the Western colonizers. Bulbeck, Chilla, Re-orienting Western Feminisms: Women\'s Diversity in a Postcolonial World (Cambridge University Press, 1997), ISBN 9780521580304
Taslima Nasrin: author, physician, and feminist human rights activist
Postcolonial feminism is critical of Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and liberal feminism and their universalization of female experience. Postcolonial feminists argue that cultures impacted by colonialism are often vastly different and should be treated as such. Colonial oppression may result in the glorification of pre-colonial culture, which, in cultures with traditions of power stratification along gender lines, could mean the acceptance of, or refusal to deal with, inherent issues of gender inequality.Greenwald, A: "Postcolonial Feminism in Anthills of the Savannah", 2002 Postcolonial feminists can be described as feminists who have reacted against both universalizing tendencies in Western feminist thought and a lack of attention to gender issues in mainstream postcolonial thought.Mills, S (1998): "Postcolonial Feminist Theory" page 98 in S. Jackson and J. Jones eds., Contemporary Feminist Theories (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press) pp.98-112
Third-world feminism has been described as a group of feminist theories developed by feminists who acquired their views and took part in feminist politics in so-called third-world countries. Narayan, U. (1997): Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third-World Feminism (New York:Routledge) Although women from the third world have been engaged in the feminist movement, Chandra Talpade Mohanty and Sarojini Sahoo criticize Western feminism on the grounds that it is ethnocentric and does not take into account the unique experiences of women from third-world countries or the existence of feminisms indigenous to third-world countries. According to Chandra Talpade Mohanty , women in the third world feel that Western feminism bases its understanding of women on "internal racism, classism and homophobia". Mohanty, C (1991): "Introduction" page 7 in Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Indiana: Indiana University Press) pp.1-50. According to Sarojini Sahoo , “sexual liberty is a major question for third wave feminist in Europe and it is an important question but for the Asian African feminist”.[citation needed] This discourse is strongly related to African feminism and postcolonial feminism. Its development is also associated with concepts such as black feminism, womanism,,Ogunyemi, C. O. (1985): "Womanism: The Dynamics of the Black Female Novel in English", Signs 11(1) pp63-80Kolawale, M. (1997): Womanism and African Consciousness (Africa World Press) "Africana womanism",Hudson-Weems, C. (1993), Africana womanist: Reclaiming ourselves (Troy, MI: Bedford) "motherism",Acholonu, C. O. (1995): Motherism: The Afrocentric Alternative to Feminism (Owerri, Nigeria: Afa Publications) "Stiwanism",Ogundipe-Leslie, M. (1994): Re-Creating Ourselves: African Women & Critical Transformations (Africa World Press) "negofeminism",Nnaemeka, O. (1995): "Feminism, Rebellious Women, and Cultural Boundaries", Research in African Literatures chicana feminism, and "femalism".
Ecofeminism links ecology with feminism. Ecofeminists see the domination of women as stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment. Patriarchal systems, where men own and control the land, are seen as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. Since the men in power control the land, they are able to exploit it for their own profit and success. In this same situation, women are exploited by men in power for their own profit, success, and pleasure. Women and the environment are both exploited as passive pawns in the race to domination. Those people in power are able to take advantage of them distinctly because they are seen as passive and rather helpless. Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of women with that of the environment. As a way of repairing social and ecological injustices, ecofeminists feel that women must work towards creating a healthy environment and ending the destruction of the lands that most women rely on to provide for their families.MacGregor, Sherilyn. "Beyond Mothering Earth: Ecological Citizenship" Vancouver: UBC Press 2006
Ecofeminism argues that there is a connection between women and nature that comes from their shared history of oppression by a patriarchal Western society. Vandana Shiva explains how women\'s special connection to the environment through their daily interactions with it have been ignored. She says that "women in subsistence economies, producing and reproducing wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature’s processes. But these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by the [capitalist] reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women’s lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth.” Shiva, Vandana, Staying Alive: Women Ecology and Development (Zed Books Ltd, 1989), ISBN 9780862328238 Ecofeminism also criticizes Western lifestyle choices, such as consuming food that has traveled thousands of miles and playing sports (such as golf and bobsledding) which inherently require ecological destruction.
However, feminist and social ecologist Janet Biehl has criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions of women. Biehl, Janet, Rethinking Ecofeminist Politics (South End Press, 1991), ISBN 9780896083929
Wendy McElroy: Canadian individualist anarchist feminist.
Individualist feminism is defined in opposition to, what writers such as Wendy McElroy and Christina Hoff Sommers term, political or gender feminism. McElroy, Wendy, Liberty for Women: Freedom and Feminism in the Twenty-First Century (Ivan R Dee, 2002), ISBN 9781566634359 Some individualist feminists trace the movement\'s roots to the classical liberal tradition.Mary Wollstonecraft by Wendy McElroy[2] It is closely linked to the libertarian ideas of individuality and personal responsibility for both women and men. Some other feminists believe that it reinforces patriarchal systems because it does not view the rights or political interests of men and women as being in conflict nor does it rest upon class or gender analysis.Good Will Toward Men by Wendy McElroy [3] Individualist feminists attempt to change legal systems in order to eliminate class privileges and gender privileges and to ensure that individuals have equal rights, including an equal claim under the law to their own persons and property. Individualist feminism encourages women to take full responsibility for their own lives. It also opposes any government interference into the choices adults make with their own bodies, because it contends such interference creates a coercive hierarchy (such as patriarchy).ifeminists.net. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. McElroy, Wendy, ed. Liberty for Women: Freedom and Feminism in the Twenty-First Century (Ivan R Dee Inc., 2002), ISBN 9781566634359
Woman Suffrage Headquarters, Cleveland, 1912
The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women\'s suffrage; the right to initiate divorce proceedings and "no fault" divorce; and the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to own property. Messer-Davidow, Ellen, Disciplining feminism: from social activism to academic discourse (Duke University Press, 2002), ISBN 9780822328437 Butler, Judith, \'Feminism in Any Other Name\', differences vol. 6, numbers 2-3, pp. 44-45
Feminism has effected many changes in Western society, including women\'s suffrage, broad employment for women at more equitable wages, the right to initiate divorce proceedings and the introduction of "no fault" divorce, the right to obtain contraception and safe abortions, and access to university education.
According to studies by the United Nations, when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, on average women work more than men. In rural areas of selected developing countries women performed an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 102 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 20 minutes per day.[url=http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf] Section 28: Gender, Work Burden, and Time Allocation in United Nations Human Development Report 2004 At the UN\'s Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Women\'s Association 21st International Conference in 2001 it was stated that "in the world as a whole, women comprise 51 percent of the population, do 66 percent of the work, receive 10 percent of the income and own less than one percent of the property".[4]
For more details on this topic, see Gender-neutral language in English.
Gender-neutral language is a description of language usages which are aimed at minimizing assumptions regarding the biological sex of human referents. The advocacy of gender-neutral language reflects, at least, two different agendas: one aims to clarify the inclusion of both sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language); the other proposes that gender, as a category, is rarely worth marking in language (gender-neutral language). Gender-neutral language is sometimes described as non-sexist language by advocates and politically-correct language by opponents."Gender Neutral Language." University of Saskatchewan Policies, 2001. http://www.usask.ca/policies/2_03.htm. Accessed March 25 2007.
The increased entry of women into the workplace beginning in the twentieth century has affected gender roles and the division of labor within households. Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild in The Second Shift and The Time Bind presents evidence that in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework. Hochschild, Arlie Russell, The Second Shift (Penguin, 2003), ISBN 9780142002926 Hochschild, Arlie Russell, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work (Owl Books U.S, 2003), ISBN 9780805066432
Feminist criticisms of men\'s contributions to child care and domestic labor in the Western middle class are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a household\'s domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship also work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that the financial income of married men does not affect their rate of attending to household duties.Scott J. South and Glenna Spitze, "Housework in Marital and Nonmarital Households," American Sociological Review 59, no. 3 (1994):327-348Sarah Fenstermaker Berk and Anthony Shih, "Contributions to Household Labour: Comparing Wives\' and Husbands\' Reports,", in Berk, ed., Women and Household Labour
In Dubious Conceptions, Kristin Luker discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women\'s choices to bear children, both in and out of wedlock. She says that as childbearing out of wedlock has become more socially acceptable, young women, especially poor young women, while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s, now see less of a reason to get married before having a child. Her explanation for this is that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, hence poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will be able to provide reliable financial support. Luker, Kristin, Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of the Teenage Pregnancy Crisis. Harvard University Press (1996)
Although research suggests that to an extent, both women and men perceive feminism to be in conflict with romance, studies of undergraduates and older adults have shown that feminism has positive impacts on relationship health for women and sexual satisfaction for men, and found no support for negative stereotypes of feminists.[5] Laurie A. Rudman & Julie E. Phelan, "The Interpersonal Power of Feminism: Is Feminism Good for Romantic Relationships?" Sex Roles, Vol. 57, No. 11-12, Dec 2007.
For more details on Women\'s literature written in English, see Women\'s writing in English.
Women\'s writing came to exist as a separate category of scholarly interest relatively recently. In the West, second-wave feminism prompted a general reevaluation of women\'s historical contributions, and various academic sub-disciplines, such as women\'s history and women\'s writing, developed in response to the belief that women\'s lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest. Blain, Virginia, Isobel Grundy, and Patricia Clements, eds. The Feminist Companion to Literature in English. New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1990 Virginia Balisn et al. characterize the growth in interest since 1970 in women\'s writing as "powerful". Much of this early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies such as Dale Spender\'s Mothers of the Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer\'s The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing. Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of nineteenth and early-twentieth-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender\'s study, issued a companion line of eighteenth-century novels written by women.Sandra M. Gilbert, "Paperbacks: From Our Mothers\' Libraries: women who created the novel." New York Times, May 4, 1986. More recently, Broadview Press has begun to issue eighteenth- and nineteenth-century works, many hitherto out of print and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of early women\'s novels. There has been commensurate growth in the area of biographical dictionaries of women writers due to a perception, according to one editor, that "[m]ost of our women are not represented in the \'standard\' reference books in the field".
In the 1960s the genre of science fiction combined its sensationalism with political and technological critiques of society. With the advent of feminism, questioning women’s roles became fair game to this "subversive, mind expanding genre".Clute, John (1995). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. "Martin\'s Griffin", 424. Two early texts are Ursula K. Le Guin\'s The Left Hand of Darkness (1969) and Joanna Russ\' The Female Man (1970). They serve to highlight the socially constructed nature of gender roles by creating utopias that do away with gender.Elyce Rae Helford, in Westfahl, Gary. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Greenwood Press, 2005: 290. Both authors were also pioneers in feminist criticism of science fiction in the 1960s and 70s, in essays collected in The Language of the Night (Le Guin, 1979) and How To Suppress Women\'s Writing (Russ, 1983). Other major works of feminist science fiction have been The Handmaid\'s Tale by Margaret AtwoodSturgis, Susanna. Octavia E. Butler: June 22 1947–February 24 2006: The Women\'s Review of Books, 23(3): 19 May 2006. and Kindred by Octavia Butler.
Riot grrrl (or riot grrl) is an underground feminist punk movement that started in the 1990s and is often associated with third-wave feminism (it is sometimes seen as its starting point). However, riot grrrl\'s emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave. Rosenberg, Jessica, Gitana Garofalo, \'Riot Grrrl: Revolutions from within\' in Signs, Vol. 23, No. 3, Feminisms and Youth Cultures (Spring, 1998) Riot grrrl bands often address issues such as rape, domestic abuse, sexuality, and female empowerment. Some bands associated with the movement are: Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, Excuse 17, Free Kitten, Heavens To Betsy, Huggy Bear, L7, and Team Dresch. In addition to a music scene, riot grrrl is also a subculture; zines, the DIY ethic, art, political action, and activism are part of the movement. Riot grrrls hold meetings, start chapters, and support and organize women in music. Schilt, Kristen, \'"A Little Too Ironic": The Appropriation and Packaging of Riot Grrrl Politics by Mainstream Female Musicians\' in Popular Music and Society, Vol. 26, 2003
For more details on this topic, see Feminist theology.
Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women\'s place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion\'s sacred texts. Bundesen, Linda, The Feminine Spirit: Recapturing the Heart of Scripture (Jossey Bass Wiley, 2007), ISBN 9780787984953
Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men. Because this equality has been historically ignored, Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically-determined characteristics such as sex. Their major issues are the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of abilities of women compared to men. They also are concerned with the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment
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